Created by Ms.
Golding for her English Classes at Concord-Carlisle High School
"To
see with one's own eyes, to feel and judge without succumbing to the suggestive
power of the fashion of the day, to be able to express what one has seen or
felt in a trim sentence or even a cunningly wrought word - is that not
glorious?
--Albert
Einstein
Table of Contents
|
Literary Analysis: Preparing for your Essay Structuring
an Analytical Essay Basic
Overview Ă+ Outlining Ă+ Introductions Ă+ Paragraph
Structure Ă+ Transitions Ă+ Structuring your Argument Ă+ Conclusions
|
When to
Use Quotations Ă+ Citing
and Formatting Quotations Ă+ Ways to Integrate Quotations Ă+ Punctuating
Quotations |
Active
Voice Ă+ Sentence Structure Ă+Parallelism Ă+ Wordiness
Ă+ Informal
Language Ă+ Vague Language Ă+ Vocabulary |
Common Grammatical and Mechanical Errors Confusing Word Pairs Punctuation Rules Grammatical Terms |
Every paper you turn in for this class should
1.Be sure you accurately understand the
textŐs literal meaning.
This may seem obvious, but you cannot begin developing an interpretation if you are confused about the plot or the characters. Clarify any plot-level questions you may have before you begin your essay.
2.Move beyond observation to analysis.
Noticing
that something is happening in a text is not the same thing as analyzing why. Suppose youŐre reading Romeo and
Juliet and you notice
that most of the scenes between Romeo and Juliet take place at night. ThatŐs a potentially interesting
observation, but donŐt stop there –begin to explore why they only meet at night. What might
Shakespeare be suggesting about their relationship through this motif? Numbers 3-6 suggest aspects of a text
that are often significant, but for each remember that you need to not only
observe & identify, but analyze.
3.Notice literary elements.
Pay
attention to the authorŐs use of imagery, metaphors, symbols, etc. How does he/she use them to develop
themes? Jack Lynch of Rutgers University says that Ňmetaphors — the
likening of one thing to another — are much more common than most casual
readers realize. Here's a passage from chapter 12 of The Scarlet Letter: "It was an obscure night in early
May. An unwearied pall of cloud muffled the whole expanse of sky from zenith to
horizon." The word pall
here means "covering" — he's just talking about cloud-cover.
But a pall is
actually a piece of velvet used to cover a coffin: think about the
implications, then, of likening clouds to a shroud.Ó This kind of digging illuminates a text much more
effectively than merely making a list of images.
4.Notice the authorŐs use of language.
Pay
attention to the authorŐs diction
(word choice). Is the author using formal language? Colloquial/informal language? How about the characters – do some talk differently
than others? Consider the authorŐs tone (attitude toward his/her subject). Does the author seem to admire or
criticize certain characters? How does he/she signal that through
language? Think about mood (the atmosphere an author creates). Is the author using particular language
to make a setting seem spooky, or welcoming, or depressing? Look at verb
tenses—is the entire text told in present tense? Does the author switch
to present tense at certain moments? Why those moments?
5.Notice narrative techniques.
Pay
attention to who is telling the story. If there is a first person narrator, is
that narratorŐs version of events reliable? In To Kill a Mockingbird, Scout Finch appears generally truthful,
but sometimes her youth causes her to misunderstand – and thus
misrepresent – events. In John SciezkaŐs The True Story of the Three
Little Pigs, however,
the wolf appears to lie about events, or at least twist them so that he appears
in a better light. How does the narratorŐs personality affect the story he/she
is telling? If the narration is third person, is it omniscient (does it see and
know everything) or is its point of view limited? If the narrator changes throughout the text –from
first to third, or from one character to another – itŐs always worth
exploring why.
6.Notice the textŐs structure.
Look
at the opening and closing scenes. Why might the author choose to begin and end
the story in these places?
Sometimes authors echo the storyŐs opening in the conclusion (Of Mice
and Men, Beowulf, Macbeth)
– think about why. Look for
repeated scenes – the three scaffold scenes in The Scarlet Letter or the three battles in Beowulf certainly help develop the themes of
their respective texts. WhereŐs
the climax, or turning point, of the story? Think about its significance.
7.
Separate your personal opinion about the text from the text itself.
There
is a difference between (a) what happens in the book, (b) the statement the
author makes about what happens in the book, and (c) your personal opinion
about either (a) or (b). You
cannot blur this line.
Note the difference between interpretation and opinion: if you think that by the end of The
Scarlet Letter Hawthorne
condemns Hester and DimmesdaleŐs behavior, thatŐs an interpretation (backed up,
hopefully, by the text). If you
think that Roger Chillingworth deserves serious jail time, thatŐs your opinion. If you think that HawthorneŐs
characters are unrealistic and unlikable, thatŐs your opinion. Know the difference. Generally, you should limit your use of
(c) to your introduction and conclusion.
Some people would argue that (c) has no place in formal literary
analysis.
8.Never assume that an individual text
is historically representative – or even historically accurate.
Certainly,
a bookŐs historical context is relevant when we sit down to construct an
interpretation. But you cannot
draw substantial conclusions about a historical era on the basis of one
novel. A fiction writer is not
necessarily a historian who compiles reams of information from multiple sources
before he/she sits down to write. The
Great Gatsby is not a
definitive, factual, thoroughly researched treatise about the 1920s – it
is one manŐs limited picture.
9. Never assume that a text is
autobiographical.
This
is similar to number 8; itŐs important to remember that fiction is fictional.
While all or some of a text may indeed be based on the authorŐs real
life experiences, in most cases you wonŐt know what is real and what is
fiction. Even when you know
something about the authorŐs life (Dostoyevsky served a prison term in Siberia,
for instance) you canŐt know to
what extent he/she has fictionalized real events. Remember that writing fiction or poetry is a creative act;
just because a writer writes about an unhappy marriage, for instance, her own
marriage doesnŐt have to be unhappy. Writers make things up.
As you know,
your thesis is the main argument your essay makes about a text or texts. It might help to think of your thesis
as having two parts: part 1 (in
which you make an observation about a text) and part 2 (in which you explain what the observation is
significant).
HereŐs a thought
formula from a college writing website: "I want to show you [something
in the text] in order to say [something you should care about]." (Note that this formula is meant to get
you thinking – do not word your thesis this way!)
Other formulas
that may be useful:
Through
the use of ____________, (the author) reveals __________.
symbol illustrates
imagery articulates
metaphor explores/examines
motif debates
By
comparing _________ to _________,
(the author) shows us _________.
character 1 character 2
setting
1 setting
2
reaction
1 reaction
2
experience
1 experience 2
choice
1 choice
2
A
good thesis should:
When
you write a literary essay, you arenŐt writing about The World, or Society, or
Human Nature—youŐre writing about one personŐs representation of the
world through language. DonŐt
write a thesis that says ŇFriendship is the most important thing in lifeÓ and
then support it with Of Mice and Men; all you can really support is that friendship is of
primary importance in Of Mice and Men.
DonŐt answer the question that you wish I had asked; address the actual assignment. This is essential to remember if you take the A.P. English test.
A literary analysis is not a plot summary or a list of symbols; itŐs an argument. You are trying to prove something, not describe something. Remember that thereŐs a difference between your topic and your thesis: Ňnight and day imagery in Romeo and JulietÓ is a topic. ŇIn Romeo and Juliet, Shakespeare uses night and day to stress the fantasy aspects of the young loversŐ relationshipÓ is a thesis.
YouŐre
writing an essay, not a book review. While you may well feel that Crime and Punishment is the greatest work of art of the last
200 years, or that Kafka is overrated, or that FlaubertŐs characters are boring
and unrealistic, your essay is not the place to discuss this. Put in your
reading journals or write me an email or bring it up in class, but keep it out
of your essay.
If
every person in class would automatically agree with your thesis, itŐs probably
so obvious that itŐs not worth your time to explore. Your thesis should be debatable, but not crazy. A suggestion: write about something that you find puzzling on the first
reading. Remember that a thesis is
not a statement of fact; it is a position or an argument.
A thesis should limit your focus. This is good news– it means that you donŐt have to address all 400 pages of the novel we just finished in your 3-5 page essay. An overly broad thesis will result in an unfocused paper that doesnŐt address any aspect of the text in sufficient depth. Choose a limited area of focus and concentrate on it.
Unfocused: The Great Gatsby deals with the theme of love.
More
focused: In The Great Gatsby, the
characters of Gatsby and Myrtle demonstrate that love is primarily a
destructive force in the novel.
This is obvious. You can have the most original, thought-provoking thesis imaginable, but if you canŐt back it up with the text itŐs no good.
From
Erik SimpsonŐs Five Ways of Looking at a Thesis: ŇConsider
the following examples:
A:
By telling the story of Westley and Buttercup's triumph over evil, The Princess
Bride affirms the power of true love.
B:
Although the main plot of The Princess Bride rests on the natural power of true
love, an examination of the way that fighting sticks--baseball bats, tree
branches, and swords--link the frame story to the romance plot suggests that
the grandson is being trained in true love, that love is not natural but
socialized.
I
would argue that both of these statements are perfectly correct, but they are
not both strange. Only the second one says something, well, weird. Weird is
good. Sentence A encourages the paper to produce precisely the evidence that The
Princess Bride presents
explicitly; sentence B ensures that the paper will talk about something
new. Romeo and Juliet concerns the dangers of family pride, Frankenstein the dangers of taking science too far.
Yup. How can you make those things unusual?
Good
papers go out on a limb. They avoid ugly falls by reinforcing the limb with
carefully chosen evidence and rigorous argumentation.Ó
9. Say something about the text(s) you
discuss exclusively.
From
Erik SimpsonŐs Five Ways of Looking at a Thesis:
ŇIf
your thesis could describe many works equally well, it needs to be more
specific. Let's return to our examples from above:
A:
By telling the story of Westley and Buttercup's triumph over evil, The
Princess Bride
affirms the power of true love.
B:
Although the main plot of The Princess Bride rests on the natural power of true
love, an examination of the way that fighting sticks--baseball bats, tree
branches, and swords--link the frame story to the romance plot suggests that
the grandson is being trained in true love, that love is not natural but
socialized.
Try
substituting other works:
A:
By telling the story of Darcy and Elizabeth's triumph over evil, Pride and
Prejudice affirms
the power of true love.
Sure,
that makes sense. Bad sign.
B:
Although the main plot of Pride and Prejudice rests on the natural power of true
love, an examination of the way that fighting sticks (baseball bats, tree
branches, and swords) link the frame story to the romance plot suggests that
the grandson is being trained in true love, that it is not natural but
socialized.
Um,
nope. Even if you have never read Pride and Prejudice, you can probably guess that such a
precise thesis could hardly apply to other works. Good sign.Ó
9.
Matter to you/interest you.
Nothing is more boring to read – or to write –than a paper that says what you think I want to hear. ThereŐs a line in A Few Good Men where Tom Cruise says, ŇIt doesnŐt matter what I believe! It only matters what I can prove!Ó Please donŐt take this approach to essay writing; you should write about something you believe in or that interests you. If nothing about the text interests you, see me.
*Note: A thesis statement does not have to be only one sentence; while you should try to be concise, you may use two or even three sentences if your idea is complex.
A
good thesis should not:
If you have a brilliant thesis that makes sense only if you ignore the end of the novel, you have a problem. If your thesis only works as long as I donŐt remember what happens in chapter 7, you have a problem.
2. Be
artificially simple or absolute.
Many writers, conscious that they need to construct a convincing argument, write theses that take a very black-and-white view of a text. Such thesis statements are often shallow or misleading. If you argue that Macbeth is a thoroughly evil man, you ignore the nuances and tensions that make his character interesting. DonŐt be afraid to acknowledge ambiguity; most good writing has shades of grey.
WomenŐs
role in society during Elizabethan times might be a good topic for a history
paper, but itŐs a poor choice for your Macbeth essay assigned in English class. Unless
youŐre willing to do substantial
outside research (and a quick Google search is not ŇsubstantialÓ) youŐre likely
to make statements that are (a) obvious, (b) unsupported, or (c)
inaccurate. You canŐt write about
women in Elizabethan times, but you can write about women in Macbeth. DonŐt go beyond your source (in this case, the text of Macbeth). The same goes for authorsŐ biographies; unless youŐre going
to do a lot of research, writing a Metamorphosis paper about KafkaŐs relationship with
his father is unlikely to yield substantial insights or arguments.
This
is similar to #3 – you need to limit your statements to the text under
discussion. You canŐt claim that because Shakespeare says something itŐs now
true for everyone. Your thesis could address something ShakespeareŐs Macbeth suggests about human nature, but it
should be about the textŐs view of the world, not the world itself. Avoid sentences like this one:
ŇSince the dawn of time, human beings have struggled with the question of the meaning of life.Ó
Maybe this is true. Then again, maybe it isnŐt. The point
is that you donŐt know this – if you havenŐt studied the existential
anguish of the Mesopotamians, the Etruscans, the Mayans, the Incans, etc. (and
really, even if you have), how can you possibly state that people have been
thinking about a particular topic since the dawn of time? Even if they have,
this is still such a broad sentence that it provides no real context for your
thesis. Make precise statements
about the text; donŐt take refuge in sweeping generalizations.
YouŐre writing an analysis, not a book review – this is not the place to tell me that you think Austen is boring or Conrad is pretentious. Save it for your reading journals or class discussion.
Simply noting that Macbeth is a conflicted man is observation, not analysis.
Your
thesis should not say
ŇText A and Text B are the same but also different.Ó Ideally, your comparison
of texts or characters should illuminate an idea in both of them or raise a
larger question.
The
Great Gatsby and Their Eyes Were Watching God both explore the many
ramifications of being imprisoned in the past; however, while GatsbyŐs
imprisonment destroys his life, Janie discovers how to break free.
DonŐt
write this kind of thesis: The
Great Gatsby disproves the old saying ŇOnce bitten, twice shy.Ó
Express your ideas in your words.
The
best essays have a feeling of momentum: each point builds upon the next to
reach the conclusion. A mediocre
thesis often lists three qualities or points that could be presented in any
order; if the order of your paragraphs doesnŐt matter, then you probably need
to rethink your argument.
Listing: In Pride and Prejudice, Austen suggests that the
best marriages have mutual respect, equal social standing, and solid finances.
Building:
Early in the novel Austen seems to praise Elizabeth for rejecting a
mercenary marriage; by the end, however, the success of Jane and ElizabethŐs
marriages and the weakness of LydiaŐs suggests that a solid income is more
important that Elizabeth initially believes.
While
it can be tempting to write a thesis first and then search for evidence that
supports it, this often results in a shallower, less thoughtful paper
–when you make up your mind before you gather evidence, you often
overlook or oversimplify elements of the text. Before you write your thesis, you should:
1.
Choose a topic (remember, a topic is not a position,
but rather an area of focus.)
2.
Find
between 8 and 15 quotations and/or passages from the text(s) that relate to
your topic. Read them carefully and note recurring ideas, positions, images,
metaphors, or other patterns.
3.
Based on
the evidence you have collected in Step 2, draft a preliminary thesis. If you find that are unable to draft a
good thesis about this topic, go back to Step 1and choose a new topic.
4.
Draft your
essay. After finishing a first draft, reconsider your thesis statement: does it
accurately and thoroughly reflect what you actually argue in your draft? If not, revise it (be sure to make
necessary adjustments throughout your draft and not just in your introduction).
Sample Thesis Statements:
v
While
the speakers in both poems claim that love is a more powerful force than time,
they present contrasting views of the nature of love itself: Donne suggests that loveŐs power comes
from within an individual, whereas Shakespeare implies that love is a universal
force independent of the speakers involved.
v Janie Starks shows that a woman can
achieve her dreams and choose her own path in life rather than be restricted to
predetermined social roles – in this way, she epitomizes the ideas of the
feminist movement.
v
Many
critics have called The Scarlet Letter misogynistic, but the last chapter
suggests it is more feminist than usually assumed. (This is acceptable ONLY if the writer
supports the statement about Ňmany criticsÓ).
v
Lady
Macbeth works to manipulate her husband into believing in the possibility of
free will, but Shakespeare puts them in a world controlled by fate.As her use
of language shows,
v
Moll
Flanders imagines every aspect of life, including love and family life, in
economic terms.
v
In ŇMuch
Madness is Divinest SenseÓ and ŇSelf-Reliance,Ó Dickinson and Emerson both
argue that while the world may punish the nonconformist, oneŐs true opinion is
valuable enough to make confronting the majority worthwhile.
An
essay has three essential sections:
(1) the introduction (generally
1-2 paragraphs, possibly more in a lengthy essay), (2) the body (at least 2 paragraphs but can have many
more), and (3) the conclusion (generally
1-2 paragraphs). YouŐve known this
since middle school.
HereŐs
the key middle school myth I want to dispel: An essay does not HAVE to have five paragraphs. ThereŐs nothing magical about the number 5. Some great 3-5 page
essays have six, seven, or even eight paragraphs. Longer essays have even more. Not only are 5 paragraphs not required, but if you rigidly
insist upon 5 paragraphs you will have a very difficult time structuring the
more complex and sophisticated essays that you will be expected to write in
college (and in this class, for that matter).
2. Outlining
If you donŐt usually write an outline before you start drafting, you should. You donŐt have to use the complicated Roman numeral/letter system that you learned in elementary school (although itŐs pretty good), but you should at least write down (a) your thesis, (b) the three or four key points you need to explain in order to prove your thesis, and (c) the key evidence for those points. This will make you think through your argument before you begin writing and keep you from drifting into tangents as you write. The more you plan out your argument before writing, the better your essay will be.
3. Introductions
Many
writers find the introduction the most frustrating part of the essay to
write. It doesnŐt have to be that
difficult, however; the key is to remember the function of an introduction.
Your introduction should:
á
Set up a
logical foundation for your argument. What questions are you exploring? What
are your starting points? What assumptions underlie your argument?
á
Explain key
terms and concepts. For example, a paper on penance and repentance in The
Scarlet Letter should begin
with an explanation of the distinction between the two terms.
á
Present
your thesis. While you may save some aspects of your argument for later in the
essay (you donŐt have to give everything away in paragraph 1), you should
provide a general idea of your position. The thesis statement should come at or
near the end of the introduction.
á
Hook your
audience. Make your ideas seem so
interesting and essential that I want to keep reading.
Ways to Begin:
á
The
Direct Statement. ItŐs all right to begin talking about
your text in the very first sentence, you donŐt have to always begin broadly.
á
The
Quotation. This does not
have to be from the text on which you are writing, although it can be.
Explain the quotation, explain how it relates to your topic, and use it as a launching pad for your thesis.
á
The
Rhetorical Question. Use the question to set up the debate
you will explore in your essay.
á Creative Writing. Use your descriptive powers to evoke a key scene fro